The Concept Of Virtue

The real story of the concept of virtue is far weirder, older, and more consequential than the version most people know.

The Roots of Virtue

The idea of virtue has ancient origins, stretching back thousands of years to the earliest recorded philosophies of the ancient world. In the 6th century BCE, the Greek thinker Pythagoras developed one of the first comprehensive systems of virtue, based on the concept of harmony and balance. He taught that true virtue lay in achieving a middle path between extremes, avoiding excess in any direction.

Around the same time, the Chinese philosopher Confucius was developing a similar framework of virtues, including ren (benevolence), li (propriety), and zhi (knowledge). For Confucius, the cultivation of virtue was essential for individual fulfillment and social harmony. These ideas would go on to have a profound influence on East Asian philosophy and culture.

The Platonic Ideal

In ancient Greece, the philosopher Plato built upon the earlier concepts of virtue, creating an influential and enduring framework. Plato believed that true virtue existed as an ideal form, a perfect manifestation of moral goodness that was the ultimate goal of human striving.

According to Plato, the four cardinal virtues were:

• Wisdom (sophia): The ability to make sound judgments and discern truth from falsehood.
• Courage (andreia): The strength of character to do what is right in the face of adversity.
• Temperance (sophrosyne): The discipline to control one's desires and maintain balance.
• Justice (dikaiosyne): The ethical treatment of others and the proper ordering of society.

Plato argued that the truly virtuous person would embody all of these qualities in perfect harmony, an ideal that has endured as a touchstone of Western moral philosophy.

Aristotle's Mean

Plato's most famous student, Aristotle, developed his own influential theory of virtue. Aristotle agreed that virtue was an ideal to aspire to, but he departed from Plato's view that it was an abstract, transcendent form.

For Aristotle, virtue was a matter of striking the right balance or "mean" between extremes. Courage, for instance, was the mean between the vices of cowardice and recklessness. Temperance was the middle ground between self-indulgence and insensitivity. By cultivating the right habits and practical wisdom, Aristotle argued, individuals could embody virtuous character traits.

"Virtue is a state of character concerned with choice, lying in a mean, i.e. the mean relative to us, this being determined by reason and in the way in which the man of practical wisdom would determine it."
- Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics

Stoic Resilience

The Greco-Roman school of Stoicism, founded by Zeno of Citium in the 3rd century BCE, offered another influential perspective on virtue. The Stoics believed that true virtue lay in the cultivation of an inner strength and equanimity in the face of life's inevitable challenges and sorrows.

Key Stoic virtues included:

• Wisdom (sophia): The ability to make sound judgments and accept what is outside one's control.
• Justice (dikaiosyne): Treating others with fairness and honesty.
• Courage (andreia): The strength to do what is right despite fear or adversity.
• Temperance (sophrosyne): Moderation and self-discipline in one's desires and emotions.

The Stoics believed that by cultivating these virtues, individuals could achieve a state of tranquility (ataraxia) and inner freedom, even in the face of external hardship. This philosophy would go on to have a profound impact on later thinkers, from the Roman emperor Marcus Aurelius to the Enlightenment philosopher Immanuel Kant.

The Christian Virtues

The rise of Christianity in the Roman world introduced a new framework for virtue, grounded in the teachings of Jesus and the writings of early Christian thinkers. The three "theological virtues" of faith, hope, and charity (or love) became central to the Christian moral vision.

These virtues were seen as gifts from God, essential for achieving spiritual fulfillment and eternal life. The four cardinal virtues of the ancient Greeks were also incorporated into Christian thought, but reinterpreted through a religious lens.

The synthesis of classical philosophy and Christian theology would go on to shape the Western understanding of virtue for centuries to come, influencing everything from medieval scholasticism to modern moral philosophy.

The Virtues in the Modern World

While the specific formulations of virtue have evolved over time, the underlying human desire to define and cultivate moral excellence has endured. In the modern era, philosophers, ethicists, and psychologists continue to grapple with the nature of virtue and its role in individual and social flourishing.

Contemporary virtue ethics, pioneered by thinkers like Alasdair MacIntyre and Rosalind Hursthouse, have sought to revive and reinterpret the classical Greek and Christian frameworks for the modern world. These approaches emphasize the importance of cultivating admirable character traits, such as honesty, compassion, and integrity, as the foundation for moral behavior.

At the same time, the concept of virtue has also been challenged and reexamined from new perspectives. Feminist philosophers have critiqued traditional virtue ethics for its patriarchal biases, while others have argued for a more pluralistic understanding of moral excellence that encompasses diverse cultural traditions. The ongoing debate over the nature of virtue attests to its enduring relevance and the human need to grapple with the question of how to live a good life.